Contents
Preface xxv
1 Introduction 1
Fossilization and Ultimate Attainment 5
General failure 5
Differential success/failure 7
A Conceptual Framework 8
An Outline of the Book 10
2 What Is Fossilization? 12
Selinker's Definitions 14
Others' View 16
Dictionary Definitions 18
An Alternative Definition 19
Key Issues 21
Is fossilization global or local? 21
Is fossilization a product or a process? 22
Summary 23
3 Behavioral Reflexes and Causal Variables 25
An Overview 25
Sample Explanations 28
Absence of corrective feedback 28
Quality of input 30
Lack of access to universal grammar 30
Failure of parameter resetting 30
Learning inhibiting learning 31
Automatization of faulty knowledge 31
Lack of understanding 32
Processing constraints 32
Lack of sensitivity to input 32
Change in emotional state 33
Natural inclination to focus on content, not on form 33
Avoidance 34
Satisfaction of communicative needs 34
Lack of acculturation 35
Will to maintain identity 36
Two Primary Determinants of Lack of Ability 38
Summary 42
4 A Macroscopic Analysis: Critical Period Effects 44
The Critical Period Hypothesis 44
CPH in FLA and SLA 46
The Modular Nature of CP 55
Critical Period Effects on Language Learning 57
Summary 62
5 A Macroscopic Analysis: Native Language Transfer 65
Transfer－inspired Delay in L2 Learning 68
‘Transfer to Somewhere’ and ‘Transfer to Nowhere’ 69
Transfer of ‘Thinking for Speaking’ 75
Preprogramming 77
The Schwartz and Sprouse (1996) study 77
The Sorace (1993) study 80
Summary 85
6 A Microscopic Analysis: Some Empirical Evidence 87
Some Empirical Studies 87
The longitudinal approach 88
The typical－error approach 90
The advanced－learner approach 92
The corrective－feedback approach 95
The length－of－residence approach 97
Critique of the Methodologies 97
Two recent longitudinal studies 99
Is stabilization synonymous with fossilization? 102
Should a longitudinal study last five years or longer? . . . 104
The Modular Nature of Fossilization 106
Linguistic Features Prone to Fossilization 112
The Multiple Effects Principle 118
Summary 121
7 Second Language Instruction and Fossilization 125
To What Extent Does Instruction Aid Acquisition? 126
Explicit or implicit instruction? 129
Is grammar instruction necessary? 132
The zone of capability 136
To What Extent Does Instruction Promote Fossilization? . . . 147
Classroom input 151
Pedagogic strategies 157
Opportunity for use of language 161
Summary 161
8 Summary and Conclusion 166
A Synopsis 166
Implications for Research and Practice 169
General Directions for Future Research 174
References 177
Index 198